整体设计

Overall design

1、确定翼型

1. Determine airfoil

我们要根据模型飞机的不同用途去选择不同的翼型。翼型很多，好几千种。但归纳起来，飞机的翼型大致分为三种。一是平凸翼型，这种翼型的特点是升力大，尤其是低速飞行时。不过，阻力中庸，且不太适合倒飞。这种翼型主要应用在练习机和像真机上。二是双凸翼型。其中双凸对称翼型的特点是在有一定迎角下产生升力，零度迎角时不产生升力。飞机在正飞和到飞时的机头俯仰变化不大。这种翼型主要应用在特技机上。三是凹凸翼型。这种翼型升力较大，尤其是在慢速时升力表现较其它翼型优异，但阻力也较大。这种翼型主要应用在滑翔机上和特种飞机上。另外，机翼的厚度也是有讲究的。同一个翼型，厚度大的低速升力大，不过阻力也较大。厚度小的低速升力小，不过阻力也较小。实际上就选用翼型而言，它是一个比较复杂、技术含量较高的问题。其基本确定思路是：根据飞行高度、翼弦、飞行速度等参数来确定该飞机所需的雷诺数，再根据相应的雷诺数和您的机型找出合适的翼型。还有，很多真飞机的翼型并不能直接用于模型飞机，等等。这个问题在这就不详述了。机翼常见的形状又分为：矩形翼、后掠翼、三角翼和纺锤翼(椭圆翼)。矩形翼结构简单，制作容易，但是重量较大，适合于低速飞行。后掠翼从翼根到翼梢有渐变，结构复杂，制作也有一定难度。后掠的另一个作用是能在机翼安装角为0度时，产生上反1-2度的上反效果。三角翼制作复杂，翼尖的攻角不好做准确，翼根受力大，根部要做特别加强。这种机翼主要用在高速飞机上。纺锤翼的受力比较均匀，制作难度也不小，这种机翼主要用在像真机上。翼梢的处理。由于机翼下面的压力大于机翼上面的压力，在翼梢处，从下到上就形成了涡流，这种涡流在翼梢处产生诱导阻力，使升力和发动机功率都会受到损失。为了减少翼梢涡流的影响，人们采取改变翼梢形状的办法来它。

We need to choose different airfoils based on the different uses of the model aircraft. There are many airfoils, thousands of different. But in summary, the airfoil of an aircraft can be roughly divided into three types. One is the flat convex airfoil, which is characterized by high lift, especially during low-speed flight. However, the resistance is moderate and not very suitable for flying backwards. This type of airfoil is mainly used in practice and real aircraft. The second is the biconvex airfoil. The characteristic of biconvex symmetric airfoils is that they generate lift at a certain angle of attack and do not generate lift at zero degrees of attack. The nose pitch of the aircraft does not change much during normal and incoming flight. This type of airfoil is mainly used in stunt aircraft. The third is the concave convex airfoil. This type of airfoil has a higher lift, especially at slow speeds, with better lift performance than other airfoils, but also higher drag. This type of airfoil is mainly used in gliders and special aircraft. In addition, the thickness of the wings is also carefully considered. The same airfoil has a thicker low-speed lift, but also higher drag. Low speed engines with smaller thickness have lower lift, but also lower drag. In fact, when it comes to choosing an airfoil, it is a relatively complex and technically advanced issue. The basic determination idea is to determine the required Reynolds number for the aircraft based on parameters such as flight altitude, wing chord, and flight speed, and then find the appropriate airfoil based on the corresponding Reynolds number and your aircraft model. Moreover, many real aircraft airfoils cannot be directly used for model aircraft, and so on. This issue will not be elaborated on here. The common shapes of wings are divided into rectangular wings, swept wings, delta wings, and spindle wings (elliptical wings). The rectangular wing structure is simple and easy to manufacture, but it is heavy and suitable for low-speed flight. The swept wing has a gradual transition from the root to the tip, and its structure is complex, making it difficult to manufacture. Another function of sweep back is to produce an up reflection effect of 1-2 degrees when the wing installation angle is 0 degrees. The production of delta wings is complex, and the angle of attack at the wing tip is not accurate. The wing root is subjected to a large force, and the root needs to be specially strengthened. This type of wing is mainly used on high-speed aircraft. The force on the spindle wing is relatively uniform, and the production difficulty is not small. This type of wing is mainly used in real aircraft. Treatment of wing tips. Due to the pressure below the wing being greater than the pressure above it, vortices are formed at the wing tips from bottom to top, which induce drag at the wing tips, resulting in loss of lift and engine power. In order to reduce the influence of wing tip vortex, people adopt the method of changing the shape of the wing tip to solve it.

2、确定机翼的面积

2. Determine the area of the wing

模型飞机能不能飞起来，好不好飞，起飞降落速度快不快，翼载荷非常重要。一般讲，滑翔机的翼载荷在35克/平方分米以下，普通固定翼飞机的翼载荷为35-100克/平方分米，像真机的翼载荷在100克/平方分米，甚更多。还有，普通固定翼飞机的展弦比应在5-6之间。确定副翼的面积机翼的尺寸确定后，就该算出副翼的面积了。副翼面积应占机翼面积的20%左右,其长度应为机翼的30-80%之间。

Whether a model aircraft can fly, whether it is easy to fly, and whether the takeoff and landing speed is fast, the wing load is very important. Generally speaking, the wing load of a glider is below 35 grams per square centimeter, while the wing load of a regular fixed wing aircraft is between 35-100 grams per square centimeter, similar to a real aircraft with a wing load of 100 grams per square centimeter or even more. Also, the aspect ratio of a regular fixed wing aircraft should be between 5-6. After determining the area of the aileron and the size of the wing, it is time to calculate the area of the aileron. The aileron area should account for about 20% of the wing area, and its length should be between 30-80% of the wing.

3、确定机翼安装角

3. Determine wing installation angle

以飞机拉力轴线为基准, 机翼的`翼弦线与拉力轴线的夹角就是机翼安装角。机翼安装角应在正0 -3度之间。机翼设计安装角的目的，是为了为使飞机在低速下有较高的升力。设计时要不要安装角，主要看飞机的翼型和翼载荷。有的翼型有安装角才能产生升力，如双凸对称翼。但是，大部分不用安装角就能产生升力。翼载荷较大的飞机，为了保证飞机在起飞着陆和慢速度飞行时有较大的升力，需要设计安装角。任何事物都是一分为二的，设计有安装角的飞机，飞行阻力大，会消耗一部分发动机功率。安装角超过6度以上的，更要小心，在慢速爬升和转弯的的情况下，很容易进入失速。

Based on the aircraft tension axis, the angle between the chord line of the wing and the tension axis is the wing installation angle. The wing installation angle should be between positive 0-3 degrees. The purpose of wing design installation angle is to provide higher lift for the aircraft at low speeds. Whether to install angles during design mainly depends on the aircraft's airfoil and wing load. Some airfoils have installation angles to generate lift, such as doubly convex symmetric wings. However, most can generate lift without the need for installation angles. For aircraft with large wing loads, in order to ensure a high lift during takeoff, landing, and slow flight, it is necessary to design installation angles. Everything is divided into two, and an aircraft designed with installation angles has high flight resistance and consumes a portion of engine power. For installation angles exceeding 6 degrees, be even more careful as slow climbing and turning can easily lead to stalling.

4、确定机翼上反角

4. Determine the opposite angle on the wing

机翼的上反角，是为了保证飞机横向的稳定性。有上反角的飞机，当机翼副翼不起作用时还能用方向舵转弯。上反角越大，飞机的横向稳定性就越好，反之就越差。但是，上反角也有它的两面性。飞机横向太稳定了，反而不利于快速横滚，这恰恰又是特技机所不需要的。所以，一般特技机采取0度上反角。

The upper corner of the wing is to ensure the lateral stability of the aircraft. An aircraft with an upturned angle can still turn with the rudder when the wing ailerons are not working. The larger the upper angle, the better the lateral stability of the aircraft, and vice versa. However, the upper and lower corners also have their duality. The plane's lateral stability is too stable, which is not conducive to rapid roll, which is exactly what stunt planes do not need. So, typical stunt machines adopt a 0 degree upward angle.

5、确定位置

5. Determine the center of gravity position

的确定非常重要，太靠前，飞机就头沉，起飞降落抬头困难。同时，飞行中因需大量的升降舵来配平，也消耗了大量动力。太靠后的话，俯仰太灵敏，不易操作，甚造成俯仰过度。一般飞机的在机翼前缘后的25~30%平均气动弦长处。特技机27~40%。在允许范围内，适当靠前，飞机比较稳定

The determination of the center of gravity is very important. If the center of gravity is too forward, the aircraft will sink and it will be difficult to lift up during takeoff and landing. At the same time, during flight, a large amount of elevators are required for balancing, which also consumes a lot of power. If the center of gravity is too far back, the pitch will be too sensitive, difficult to operate, and even cause excessive pitch. The center of gravity of a typical aircraft is at 25-30% of the average aerodynamic chord length behind the leading edge of the wing. 27-40% stunt machines. Within the allowable range, the center of gravity should be appropriately advanced, and the aircraft should be relatively stable

6、确定机身长度

6. Determine the length of the fuselage

翼展和机身的比例一般是70--80%。

The ratio of wingspan to fuselage is generally 70-80%.

7、确定机头的长度

7. Determine the length of the machine head

机头的长度(指机翼前缘到螺旋浆后平面的之间的距离),等于或小于翼展的15%。

The length of the nose (referring to the distance between the leading edge of the wing and the plane behind the propeller) is equal to or less than 15% of the wingspan.

8、确定垂直尾翼的面积

8. Determine the area of the vertical tail wing

垂直尾翼是用来保证飞机的纵向稳定性的。垂直尾翼面积越大，纵向稳定性越好。当然，垂直尾翼面积的大小，还要以飞机的速度而定。速度大的飞机，垂直尾翼面积越大，反之就小。垂直尾翼面积占机翼的10%。在保证垂直尾翼面积的基础上，垂直尾翼的形状，根据自己的喜好可自行设计。

The vertical tail is used to ensure the longitudinal stability of the aircraft. The larger the vertical tail area, the better the longitudinal stability. Of course, the size of the vertical tail area also depends on the aircraft's speed. The faster the aircraft, the larger the vertical tail area, and vice versa. The vertical tail area accounts for 10% of the wing area. On the basis of ensuring the area of the vertical tail, the shape of the vertical tail can be designed according to personal preferences.

9、确定方向舵的面积

9. Determine the area of the rudder

方向舵面积约为垂直尾翼面积的25%。如果是特技机，方向舵面积可增大。

The rudder area is approximately 25% of the vertical tail area. If it is a stunt aircraft, the rudder area can be increased.

10、确定水平尾翼的翼型和面积

10. Determine the airfoil and area of the horizontal tail wing

水平尾翼对整架飞机来说，也是一个很重要的问题。我们有必要先搞清常规布局飞机的气动配平原理。形象地讲，飞机在空中的气动平衡就像一个人挑水。肩膀是飞机升力的总焦点，就是前面的水桶，水平尾翼就是后面的水桶。升力的总焦点不随飞机迎角的变化而变化，永远固定在一个点上。，是在升力总焦点的前部，所以它起的作用是起低头力矩。由此可知，水平尾翼和机翼的功能恰恰相反，它是用来产生负升力的，所以它起的作用是抬头力矩，以达到飞机配平的目的。由此可知，水平尾翼只能采用双凸对称翼型和平板翼型，不能采用有升力平凸翼型。水平尾翼的面积应为机翼面积的20-25%。我选定22%，计算后得出水平尾翼的面积为89100平方毫米。同时要注意，水平尾翼的宽度约等于0.7个机翼的弦长。

The horizontal tail is also a very important issue for the entire aircraft. It is necessary for us to first understand the aerodynamic trim principles of conventional layout aircraft. Visually speaking, the aerodynamic balance of an aircraft in the air is like a person carrying water. The shoulders are the overall focus of the aircraft's lift, the center of gravity is the front bucket, and the horizontal tail is the rear bucket. The total focus of lift does not change with the angle of attack of the aircraft and is always fixed at a point. Firstly, the center of gravity is located at the front of the total lift focal point, so its function is to provide a downward torque. From this, it can be seen that the functions of the horizontal tail and wings are exactly the opposite. They are used to generate negative lift, so their role is to achieve lift torque to achieve aircraft trim. From this, it can be seen that the horizontal tail can only use biconvex symmetric airfoils and flat airfoils, and cannot use lift planar convex airfoils. The area of the horizontal tail should be 20-25% of the wing area. I selected 22% and calculated that the area of the horizontal tail wing is 89100 square millimeters. Meanwhile, it should be noted that the width of the horizontal tail is approximately equal to the chord length of 0.7 wings.

11、确定升降舵面积

11. Determine the elevator area

升降舵的面积约为水平尾翼积的20-25%。如果是特技机，升降舵面积可增大。

The area of the elevator is approximately 20-25% of the horizontal tail area. If it is a stunt aircraft, the elevator area can be increased.

12、确定水平尾翼的安装位置

12. Determine the installation position of the horizontal tail wing

从机翼前缘到水平尾翼之间的距离(就是尾力臂的长度),大致等于翼弦长的3倍。此距离短时,操纵时反应灵敏，但是俯仰不精确。此距离长时,操纵反应稍慢，但俯仰较精确。F3A的机身长度大于翼展就是这个理论的实际应用,它的目的主要是为了精确。垂直尾翼、水平尾翼和尾力臂这三个要素合起来，就是“尾容量”。尾容量的大小，是说它对飞机的稳定和姿态变化贡献的大小。这个问题我们用真飞机来说明一下。像米格15和F16高速飞行的飞机，为了保证在高速飞行时的纵向稳定，其垂直尾翼设计得又大又高。像SU27和F18甚设计成双垂直尾翼。而像运输机和客机，垂直尾翼就小得多。

The distance from the leading edge of the wing to the horizontal tail (i.e. the length of the tail arm) is approximately three times the chord length of the wing. This distance is short, and the response is sensitive during operation, but the pitch is not precise. When this distance is long, the control response is slightly slower, but the pitch is more precise. The actual application of this theory is that the fuselage length of F3A is greater than the wingspan, and its main purpose is to achieve accuracy. The three elements of vertical tail, horizontal tail, and tail force arm combined are called "tail capacity". The size of the tail capacity refers to its contribution to the stability and attitude changes of the aircraft. Let's use real airplanes to illustrate this issue. Aircraft like the MiG 15 and F16 are designed with large and high vertical tails to ensure longitudinal stability during high-speed flight. Even the SU27 and F18 are designed with dual vertical tail fins. And for transport and passenger planes, the vertical tail is much smaller.

13、确定起落架

13. Determine landing gear

一般飞机的起落架分前三点和后三点两种。前三点起落架，起飞降落时方向容易控制。但着陆粗暴时很容易损坏起落架，转弯速度较快时容易向一边侧翻，导致机翼和螺旋桨受损。后三点虽然在起飞降落时的方向控不如前三点好。但是其它方面较前三点都好。尤其是它能承受粗暴着陆，大大增加了初学者的信心。前起落架的安装位置一定要在飞机的前8公分左右，以免滑跑时折跟头。

The landing gear of a general aircraft is divided into two types: the front three-point and the rear three-point. The first three landing gears make it easy to control the direction during takeoff and landing. But when landing rough, it is easy to damage the landing gear, and when turning quickly, it is easy to roll to the side, causing damage to the wings and propellers. Although the direction control during takeoff and landing is not as good as the first three points at the last three points. But other aspects are better than the first three. Especially its ability to withstand rough landings greatly increases the confidence of beginners. The installation position of the front landing gear must be about 8 centimeters in front of the aircraft's center of gravity to avoid turning the somersault during taxiing.

14、确定发动机

14. Determine the engine

一般讲，滑翔机的功重比为0.5左右。普通飞机的功重比为0.8—1左右。特技机功重比大于1以上。安装发动机时，要有向下和向右安装角，以螺旋桨的滑流对飞机模型左偏航和高速飞行时因升力增大引起飞机模型抬头的影响。其方法是以拉力轴线为基准，从后往前看，发动机应有右拉2度，下拉1.5度的安装角。当然，根据飞机的不同，这个角度还要根据飞行中的实际情况作进一步的调整。

Generally speaking, the power to weight ratio of a glider is around 0.5. The power to weight ratio of a regular aircraft is around 0.8-1. The stunt machine has a power to weight ratio greater than 1. When installing the engine, there should be downward and rightward installation angles to address the impact of propeller slippage on the left yaw of the aircraft model and the lift increase causing the aircraft model to lift up during high-speed flight. The method is to use the tension axis as the reference, and when viewed from the back to the front, the engine should have an installation angle of 2 degrees pulled to the right and 1.5 degrees pulled down. Of course, depending on the aircraft, this angle needs to be further adjusted according to the actual situation during flight.

就功重比而言，我们的航模飞机与真飞机有着很大的不同。我们航模的功重比都能轻松的达到1，而真飞机的功重比大都在0.30.6之间，唯有高性能战斗机才能接近或超过1。这也就是说，我们在飞航模中很多飞行都是在临界失速和不严重的失速的情况下飞行的，如低速度下的急转弯、急上升、吊机等。只是由于发动机的拉力大，把失速这一情况掩盖罢了。所以我们在飞航模时，很少能飞出真飞机那种感觉。这也是我们很多朋友在飞像真机时，很容易出现失速坠机的主要原因。

In terms of power to weight ratio, our model aircraft is very different from real aircraft. Our aircraft models can easily achieve a power to weight ratio of 1, while the power to weight ratio of real aircraft is mostly between 0.3 and 0.6, and only high-performance fighter jets can approach or exceed 1. That is to say, many of our flights in the flight model are conducted under critical stall and non severe stall conditions, such as sharp turns, sharp ascents, cranes, etc. at low speeds. It's just that the stalling situation is masked due to the high pulling force of the engine. So when we fly the aircraft model, we rarely get the feeling of flying a real airplane. This is also the main reason why many of our friends are prone to stalling and crashing when flying real aircraft.

绘制三面图

Draw a three sided diagram

根据上面的设计和计算结果，我们就可以绘制出自己需要的飞机了。绘制三面图的主要目的是为了得到您想要的飞机效果，并确定每个部件的形状和位置。使您在以后的工作中，有一个基本的蓝图。

Based on the design and calculation results above, we can draw the aircraft we need. The main purpose of drawing a three sided diagram is to obtain the desired aircraft effect and determine the shape and position of each component. To provide you with a basic blueprint for your future work.

绘制结构图

Draw a structural diagram

绘制结构图的主要目的是为了确定每个部件的布局和制作步骤。如：哪个部件用什么材料，先做哪个部件后作哪个部件，部件与部件的结合方法等等。如果您胸有成竹，这一步可以省略。

The main purpose of drawing a structural diagram is to determine the layout and production steps of each component. For example, which component uses what material, which component is made first and which component is made later, the method of combining components, and so on. If you are confident, this step can be omitted.

放样和组装

Layout and assembly

根据您绘制的图纸，应做一比一的放样图。目的是在组装飞机各部件时，在放样图上粘接各部件。

According to the blueprint you have drawn, a one-to-one layout should be made. The purpose is to bond the various components on the layout diagram during the assembly of aircraft components.